Research in Business Education

 Robert S. Driska, Ed.D.
Arizona State University, Main

             A significant development during the past fifteen years is the attention accorded research by professional organizations in business education.  The coordination of effort and encouragement provided by these groups of research-minded people appear most valuable.  In 1951 Delta Pi Epsilon, the United Business Education Association, and the National Association of Business Teacher Training Institution s joined in organizing a Research Foundation.  One important contribution has been the study of needed research in business education (69).

            In 1952 Delta Pi Epsilon began its research abstract series.  This series, published annually in cooperation with other professional o0rganionts, abstracts the more important studies (26).  These abstracts prove especially helpful to the research worker.  The Central Region Group of Supervisors and Teacher Trainers of Distributive Education formed a research committee in 1956 and began several statewide studies.  The Joint Committee on Coordination and Integration of Research in Business Education initiated a series of efforts aimed at disseminating results of research in a form usable by classroom teachers, a most necessary and previously neglected step in the research program.  

General Business and Curriculum

            Carmichael (9) examined the philosophy of teacher-pupil planning and recorded the pedagogical devices implementing the philosophy in the classroom.  He concluded that the development of democratic citizenship through teacher-pupil planning was necessary to justify the inclusion of business education in the curriculum.  Jennings (32) determined the potential contributions of business education to general education by developing problem areas--16 different areas--to be used as the basis for core activities suitable to general education.  He devised instructional units and analyzed the contributions of business education to each area.  Price (59) surveyed 1884 institutions of higher learning and found 500 courses in consumer education.  He concluded that interest in such courses was growing but that consumer courses were not available to all students without restriction.  In addition he found that topics actually taught in class were frequently not related to objectives deemed important for the course.

            Russon (61) found a similarity between predictive formulas for general college achievement and those for college achievement in business education.  Using English and mathematics marks and high-school scholastic average, she produced a multiple R of .746.

            Although there is insufficient space in this review for discussion, it should be noted that over 30 studies, many of them doctoral dissertations, were status studies of the business education programs of an individual state.  The Maxwell study (47) is illustrative.  Review of such studies could present a rather complete picture of the status of business education.  The biennial census of the U.S. Office of Education (70) determined the total enrollment in business education classes as more than 60 per cent of the total pupil enrollment in the high schools.  Typewriting, bookkeeping, and shorthand remained "the big three."

            Some shortcomings of the basic business program were uncovered by Jelley (31), whose study of understandings of money management by high school seniors revealed noticeable deficiencies in their knowledge of credit and life insurance.

            One obvious way of strengthening the basic business program is for professional educators to devote more time and attention to basic business in the preservice preparation of high school business teachers.  At least one timely study leads to this conclusion.  Jones (34) discovered the following:  a) Most high school business teachers prefer to teach the skill subjects rather than the basic business subjects.   b) Undergraduate programs of business teacher education place greater emphasis upon preparation for teaching skill subjects than upon preparation for teaching basic business subjects.  c) Business teachers who teach or have taught basic business subjects have a more favorable attitude toward teaching basic business subjects than teachers who do not teach or have not taught basic business subject.  

Bookkeeping and Accounting

            Harring (25) in a review of research in bookkeeping abstracted 242 studies; he found a marked decline in completion of such studies since the 1935-1959 period.  He reported substantial recent interest in surveys, methods, and procedures of instruction, and course content.  His study has value because of its synthesis off findings and the opportunity it provides to determine areas where research if needed.

            A study of prognosis by House (30) illustrated the use of statistical tools of analysis.  He found that a combination of certain measures of arithmetic achievement, IQ, and ninth-grade marks were predictive of achievement in bookkeeping courses.  Further, he demonstrated that 60 per cent of the pupils he studies had insufficient reading ability to deal with the large beginning vocabulary loads of bookkeeping textbooks; he suggested that there was need for better texts, more emphasis upon discussion, and slower teacher presentation.

            Nicks (53) surveyed nonbookkeepers in offices to determine their bookkeep8ing duties.  Among other important findings he concluded that bookkeeping duties of nonbookkeepers were easily learning, and he isolated routines in which knowledge of bookkeeping principles and theory were not required.  He saw no justification for a year of bookkeeping training as job preparation for nonbookkeepers.  Day (15), Stoner (65), and numerous master's studies surveyed bookkeeping practices of small businesses in smaller communities.

            In his attempt to determine the effectiveness of various types of laboratory treatment for beginning college accounting students, Larson (39) found that students assigned to "enriched" laboratory treatment obtained insignificantly higher mean achievement scores in accounting than those students assigned to the "regular" or to the neglected laboratory treatments.

            The evidence appears to be rather conclusive that high school bookkeeping is the best predictor of success in college accounting.  From the data of 128 college men and women enrolled in the first quarter of principles of accounting, Larsen (40) developed four multiple-regression equations, using the following as predictive factors:  age; sex; veteran status; size of high school attended; rank in high school class; size of senior class; cumulative high school average; previous study of bookkeeping; grade point average during first quarter in college; grades in college freshmen composition, business mathematics, and introduction to business; and college entrance test scores.  The equations were then applied to a group of 106 first-quarter accounting students the following year.  The findings indicated that high school bookkeeping was the only significant predictor of achievement in college accounting.  Students who had taken bookkeeping in high school did consistently better in college accounting than those who had not had a bookkeeping course in high school  

Typewriting

            Two major studies presented the results of tachistoscopic training.  Winger (77) experimented with college classes for one semester, utilizing timed writings throughout as measures of performance.  The analysis of variance was used as a test of significance.  The tachistoscopic group developed more rapid stroking rates early with normal growth following.  All levels of ability seemed to be aided.  The experimental group also demonstrated more accuracy and better control over numbers and isolated letter combinations.  Palmer (54) concurred and stressed the permanency of the gains demonstrated by the experimental group.  While such studies were of potential value, more widespread evidence was needed especially on a longitudinal basis.

            West (74), by verbally inducing a speed set in one group and an accuracy set in another, tested the Gilbreth concept of early emphasis upon developing expert rates in motor skill activities.  Speed was found to be a stable factor and not to be achieved at the expense of accuracy.  However, multivariate covariance analysis showed that the accuracy group had fewer errors, indicating that the quest for speed was not favorable in this respect.  These findings conflict with other studies; it is possible that the effect of speed set upon accuracy depends upon the degree of stress upon each factor.

            Martin's experiment (29) tested the use of a continuous speed-forcing method against use of an interval speed-forcing method.  A significant difference between groups was found in error rate but not on speed in straight copy or problem work.  Speed was judged a stable factor, and reduction in errors was attributed to the liberation and freedom from the alternating emphasis upon speed and accuracy.  Students transferred greatest percentage of stroking rate to problems having greatest similarity to straight copy drills.  Penar (57) also demonstrated direct and marked relationships between straight copy rate and problem rate on similar material, illustrating the need for selected drills on troublesome parts of a problem since whole problem practice is straight copy practice.

            Brown (8) and Lingerfeld (26) studies the effect of stroke intensity, syllabic intensity, and percentage of frequently used words on typewriting production, producing results comparable to the Bell study of earlier years.  Stroke and syllabic intensity were not correlated positively with strokes written.  Straight copy material was not a uniform measure of difficulty.  Chapman (10) reaching similar conclusions although she found a low positive correlation between strokes and stroke intensity.

            Gross (21) found that a visual-association analytic approach developed early superiority over conventional procedures for learning the keyboard, but after 24 class periods, the groups showed not significant differences.  These findings illustrate the value of extended study; if Gross had stopped early in the experiment, it would have appeared that the experimental method produced superior results.

            Balthaser (3) taught typewriting to elementary-school children and found in 18 days performance similarly to high-school groups.  The study was verified by Rowe using less superior children and for longer periods.

            Morgan (49) measured strain in timed writings by checking pulse rates and observations.  He rejected the hypothesis that longer timed writings develop more strain than shorter ones and that speed tests are more strenuous than problem tests. 

            A review and abstracting of 444 research studies in typewriting and a synthesis of research conclusions for each of 20 problem areas were completed by Rahe (60).  He noted substantial deficiencies in research design and analysis and seemed to reach the major conclusion that many so-called conclusive findings were not conclusive at all.

            Perhaps the most striking body of recent evidence on typewriting instructional material concerns the traditional practice of devoting substantial amounts of time to building ordinary copying skill and to evaluating typists on that basis.  Crawford (13) demonstrated experimentally that students who spend their time on production typing not only achieve a higher production rate than those who devote the major amount of time to ordinary copying practice but also do just as well on straight copying.  Christensen (11) found that ordinary copying practice done by employed typists does not significantly increased their actual on-the-job output.  West (75) has demonstrated through correlational analysis, a low relationship between straight copying skill and job-type activities.

            Bell (5) found that whether the sequence of learning activities in beginning typewriting was constant or varied had not significant effect on students' achievement or attitudes.  

General Clerical

            Frisch (18) collected and analyzed specimen business typing forms and papers and presented data relative to the rank of typewriting sources by percentage of items typed.  Cook (12) concluded that the Detroit Clerical Aptitudes Examination was unstable in a test-retest evaluation and was of little value for predicting success in clerical training.  He further attributed poor predictive values to high-school grades and counselor judgments.  Guthrie (22) developed an instrument for differentiating employees with and employees without desirable personal traits for office work.  Using the chi-square technique, he isolated items for his Office Workers' Opinion Survey which appears to have considerable merit as a device for selection, placement, and advancement of employees when scores are standardized for an individual company. 

            Van Derveer (72) analyzed the step-by-step operational procedures of clerical workers and set up "ideal" patterns of performance for 67 clerical operations.  She concluded that patterns of performance emerge which provide the teacher and the pupil with valuable learning aids.

            Hamilton (24) evaluated the National Business Entrance Tests, finding high reliability for the whole test but low reliability for the parts.  Measured against workers' ratings, the test revealed low validity co-efficients indicating the need for a long validation program.  Nelson (52), in a similar validation study, reported negligible correlations between job performance ratings of stenographers and typists and the stenographic and typing test sections.

            Kilbredge (36), working for a mail-order house, devised a system of learning curves to predict the learning time on repetitive clerical operations.  Even though the analysis was based on only eight test operations, the design could be used for studies of other on-the-job skill learnings.  

Stenographic

            Stone (64), using item and response differentiation on an interest inventory to construct an intra-occupational scale, illustrated the substantial relationship between vocational interests and occupational proficiency in shorthand.  Missling (48) and Kortendick (37) found the general scholastic average to be the best single predictor (r about .70) of shorthand achievement.  Altman (1) reported significant correlation between achievement in Pitman shorthand and measures of IQ, spelling achievement, and quality of handwri5ing.  Lockwood (44) studies certified private secretaries, finding low positive correlations between success on the certifying examination and criteria of education and salary, and low negative correlations between success on the examination and criteria of age and experience.

            Morrison (50) applied the principles of learning as found in the literature of educational psychology to a shorthand text series and found the series deficient because it taught parts before the whole, did not create conditions favorable to transfer of learning, and failed to encourage meaningful learning instead of mechanical association.

            Tate (66) obtained job analyses of stenographic positions and found that frequency patterns for some duties were similar regardless of office size while other patterns were dissimilar.

            An interesting example of determining the adequacy of a sample was demonstrated by Silverthorn (62) in examining the basic vocabulary of written communications.  He found that the 50 most frequently used words accounted for 45 per cent of word occurrences while 500 words accounted for 70 per cent of the occurrences.

            Hillestad (28) demonstrated that word frequency is a much more reliable measure of difficulty than is syllabic intensity.  In addition, the multiple-regression technique used for the study made possible the development of an equation to predict the number of errors students are likely to make in their shorthand notes when taking dictation.

            By means of time-study techniques, Jester (33) discovered pertinent information about the transcription process.  Of particular consequence to shorthand teachers was that non-typewriting activities of transcription, such as erasing, deciphering poor shorthand notes, proofreading, and dealing with spelling problems, were of more importance with regard to time than the typewriting activity.  In fact, of the over-all transcription time, only 38 per cent was devoted to the typewriting activity, whereas 62 per cent was devoted to non-typewriting activities.

            Investigating the relationship between competency in shorthand vocabulary and achievement in taking dictation, Danielson (14) found that as a student's shorthand vocabulary index increased, his rate of taking dictation also increased.  Shorthand vocabulary, however is not the only factor in dictation ability.  It is interesting to note that, although general scholastic ability was found to be only remotely related to shorthand vocabulary ability, a substantial degree of correlation was found between shorthand dictation achievement and general scholastic ability.

            Two studies with applications for those preparing stenographers dealt with actual business correspondence practices.  Stather (63) compiled a list of 99 punctuation rules and analyzed their use in modern business correspondence.  He discovered that 27 of the 99 rules represented 97 per cent of all punctuation marks used in the correspondence analyzed.  Lis (43) obtained items of disputable English usage and then screened secretarial handbooks for statements concerning those items.  As a result of interviews with a committee of English teachers, business executives, and secretaries, Lis recommended that "the English usage sections of the secretarial handbooks to be revised to reflect the contemporary linguistic approach to language study and usage."

            Rose Palmer (56) used a slow-motion moving picture camera to photograph students as they took the shorthand dictation. She found that error percentages in both shorthand and typewritten transcripts were virtually identical for both groups of shorthand writers--80 wpm and 120 wpm--in her experiment.  Recent research in shorthand has centered around programming.  Both Elsie Palmer (55) and Taylor (67) have constructed and experimented with programmed materials in beginning shorthand classes.  Neither study found any significant difference in achievement at the .05 level of confidence between the control group with teacher dictation and the experimental group with programmed materials.  

Distributive Education

            Austin (2) reviewed research relating to selection of sales personnel; he observed that many studies were characterized by inadequate sampling and by research designs limited to one firm.  Supported by the studies, he concluded the IQ was not related to sales success and that tests of sales ability were of little value in a practical business situation.

            Thompson (68) studied sales situations by using tape recordings and concluded that identical selling elements were present in 32 store departments even though customers and merchandise differed.  He also showed the list of elements in retail selling to be more inclusive than previous definitions indicated.  Lawyer (41) developed evaluative criteria for sales training and surveyed the practices of representative industrial firms.

            A nonparametric test of significance was demonstrated by Haines (23).  He found that personnel in retail stores different significantly in background when classification factors such as type of store and level of job position were introduced.

            Beaumont (4) made a frequency analysis of duties of coordinators illustrating the predominance of employer contacts over other coordination activities.   Logan (45) determined, interpreted, and evaluated standards and guiding principles governing the operation of distributive education programs.  

Teacher Preparation

            Gross (20) determined that testing and grading, discipline, and teaching subject matter were the most difficult areas for beginning business teachers.  The undergraduate methods courses were judged as inadequate, especially in the areas of basic business subjects and secretarial office practice.  Blanford (7) and Bell (6) in follow-up studies of beginning business teachers concurred generally with Gross.  Both felt more classroom practice in using instructional methods and in lesson planning were desirable in methods courses.  Froehlich (19), in studying bookkeeping methods courses, determined problem areas similar to those of the previous investigators.

            Kessel (35), by means of the critical-incident technique, found four major areas of business teachers' responsibility:  a) curricular planning and instructional procedures, b) classroom management, c) extra class responsibilities, and d) staff and community relationships.

            In an attempt to discover preservice factors relating to business teachers' effectiveness, Polson (58) studied 112 teachers, all of whom had been graduated from the same university within a five-year period.  Out of a total of 290 statistical tests for significance of relationship, the only factor found to relate reliably to over-all effectiveness of teachers was that of persuasive interest as revealed by scores on the Kuder Preference Record.  

Automation and Office Work

            As a result of automation, the skills and knowledges needed by office workers are undergoing change.  As more and more of the routine work becomes mechanized, the demand for unskilled clerks will decline.  This upgrading of office work should be reflected in the type of preparation provided.  Evidence to support this contention may be found in a study made by the U.S. Department of Labor (71).  The same study also reveals that in spite of a steady increase in the use of modern, automated equipment, the demand for office workers is on the rise.

            Implications of the emerging electronic office for business training programs at the collegiate and secondary level are carefully set forth by Frisbie (18) in an ambitious study of data processing and its relationship to office employment and costs.  

Research Needs in Business Education

            Langen (38) studied the titles of research completed in 1933-1953 and found great similarity between lists of needed research and completed research, suggesting that findings had not been disseminated properly.  He advocated greater research emphasis upon certain aspects of teacher education, including methods, student teaching, and work experience, and upon experimental studies in all areas.  Tonne (69) proposed a) that local studies be of similar design so that results may be compared nationally, and b) that students at the master's level in many cases be given standard research designs but held for proper collection of data and drawing of inferences.

            According to Himstreet (29), approximately 90 per cent of the business education studies completed in the 1950's were descriptive surveys for which the questionnaire and library methods of gathering data were used.  Yet the worth of new ideas cannot be established except by rigorous experimentation.  The future growth and improvement of business education lies not in more research, but in research experimentally oriented.

Bibliography

1.  Altman, Samuel.  Achievement in Shorthand Learning.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1953.

2.  Austin, Ronald.  Selection of Sales Personnel:  A Review of Research.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1954.

 3.  Balthaser, Robert.  An Introduction to Typewriting in the Elementary Schools--Fourth and Fifth Grade.  Master's Thesis.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1953.

 4.  Beaumont, John.  A Study of the Activities of Distributive Education Cooperative Part-Time Coordinators.  Master's Thesis.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1952.

 5.  Bell, R. Dermont.  The Effective of Varying the Sequence of Learning Activities in Beginning Typewriting.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Los Angeles:  UCLA, 1960.

 6.  Bell, Robert P.  A Study of the Relationship of the Problems Encountered by Beginning Business Teachers Who Are Graduates of Bell State Teachers College and the Content of Professional Education Courses Related to These Problems.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1952.

 7.  Blanford, James.  The Relationship Between the Problems of Beginning Business Education Teachers and Their Experiences in General and Special Methods Courses.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1951.

 8.  Brown, Virginia.  The Relationship Between Stroke Intensity of Words and Typewritability.  Master's Thesis.  Blacksburg:  Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1952.

 9.  Carmichael, Denzel.  Teacher-Pupil Planning in Business Education.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Columbus:  Ohio State University, 1954.

 10.  Chapman, Doris.  The Estimation of a Regression Equation for Measuring the Difficulty of Typescript.  Master's Thesis.  Blacksburg:  Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1954.

 11.  Christensen, Opal.  The Value of Speed-Forcing Drills Administered at the Work Station in Improving Typewriting Proficiency and Production.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1956.

 12.  Cook, Fred.  A Study to Determine the Predictive Value of the Detroit Clerical Aptitudes Examination.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Ann Arbor:  University of Michigan, 1953.

 13.  Crawford, J. James.  The Effect of Emphasizing Production Typewriting contrasted with Speed Typewriting in Developing Production Typewriting Ability.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1956.

 14.  Danielson, Harriet.  The Relationship Between Competency in Shorthand Vocabulary and Achievement in the Shorthand Dictation.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1959.

 15.  Day, Lyle.  A Survey of Bookkeeping Systems and Practices in Selected Establishments in Minnesota.  Master's Thesis.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1953.

 16.  Delta Pi Epsilon.  Questions To Be Answered Through Research in Business Education.  Denver:  University of Denver, 1961.

 17.  Frisbie, Mary Adele.  Emerging Electronic Data Processing and Its Relation to Office Employment and Costs, 1930-1957, and Implications for Business Training.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1960.

 18.  Frisch, Vern.  An Analysis of Clerical Business Typing Papers and Forms for the Improvement of Instructional Materials.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1953.

 19.  Froehlick, Paul.  The Determination of Content and Procedures of A Bookkeeping Methods Course.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1954.

 20.  Gress, John.  Teaching Difficulties of Beginning Business Teachers as Bases for the Improvement of Instruction in Business Teacher-Training Institutions.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1950.

 21.  Gross, Philip.  Comparative Study of Two Methods of Learning the Keyboard in the Study of Touch Typewriting.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1952.

 22.  Guthrie, Mearl.  The Measurement of Personal Factors Related to Success of Office Workers.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1953.

 23.  Haines, Peter.  An Analysis of Selected Factors in the Socio-Economic and Occupational Experience Backgrounds of Distributive Personnel in Limited-Line Stores.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1955.

 24.  Hamilton, Herbert.  Relationships of Success in Beginning General Clerical Occupations to Achievement in the Informational and Skill Aspects of the General Office Clerical Division of the National Business Entrance Test Series.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1950.

 25.  Herring, Virgil.  A Synthesis and Classification of Research in the Teaching of Bookkeeping and Accounting.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1950. 

 26.  Hicks, Charles and Guy, Hollis.  "100 Summaries of Studies and Research in Business Education--1953."  National Business Education Quarterly.  23:  1-100; October, 1954.

 27.  Higgins, Milton.  An Instrument for Evaluation of Knowledge of the Fundamentals of Business.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Norman:  University of Oklahoma, 1963.

 28.  Hillestad, Mildred.  Factors Which Contribute to the Difficulty of Shorthand Dictation Material.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1960.

 29.  Himstreet, William.  "Analysis and Criticism of Research in Business Education, 1952-1956."  Balance Sheet.  40:  148-50; December, 1958.

 30.  House, Forest Wayne.  Factors Affecting Student Achievement in Beginning Bookkeeping in High School.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Columbus:  Ohio State University, 1951.

 31.  Jelley, Herbert.  Measurement and Interpretation of Money Management Understandings of Twelfth-Grade Students.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Cincinnati:  University of Cincinnati, 1958.

 32.  Jennings, William.  Contributions of Business Education to Selected Problem Areas of General Education in the Secondary School.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Columbus:  Ohio State University, 1952.

 33.  Jester, Donald.  A Time Study of the Shorthand Transcription Process.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Evanston, Illinois:  Northwestern University, 1959.

 34.  Jones, Raymond.  Relationships Between Certain Background Factors of Selected Business Teachers and Attitudes Toward Teaching Basic Business Subjects.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Gainesville:  University of Florida, 1960.

 35.  Kessel, Robert.  The Critical Requirements for Secondary School Business Teachers Based Upon An Analysis of Critical Incidents.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Madison:  University of Wisconsin, 1957.

 36.  Kilbredge, M.D.  "Predetermined Learning Curves for Clerical Operations."  Journal of Industrial Engineering.  10:  203-209; May-June, 1959.

 37.  Kortendick, Sister Marie Laurence.  A Study of Prognosis in Shorthand.  Master's Thesis.  Madison:  University of Wisconsin, 1952.

 38.  Langen, Herbert.  A Study To Determine the Needed Research in Business Education as Revealed by Titles of Research Studies Completed, 1933-1953, and a Survey of Opinions from Two Selected Groups of Business Educators.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Iowa City:  State University of Iowa, 1954.

 39.  Larson, Harvey A.   An Evaluation of Laboratory Teaching Methods for a Beginning College Course in Principles of Accounting.  Doctoral Dissertation.  .  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1962.

 40.  Larsen, Tora.  A Study of the Student Personnel Records at East Carolina College as Relates to Prediction in Elementary Accounting.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1967.

 41.  Lawyer, Kenneth.  A Survey of the Sales Training Practices of Representative Manufactures of Industrial Goods.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1953.

 42.  Lingerfelt, Mildred.  The Relation Between Syllabic Stroke Intensity and Typewritability.  Master's Thesis.  Blacksburg:  Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 1952.

 43.  Lis, Anthony.  Attitudes and Practices of Executives and Secretaries Concerning Disputable Items of English Usage in Secretarial Handbooks:  A Study Made in the Oil Industry in Tulsa, Oklahoma.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1961.

 44.  Lockwood, Bonnie.  A Study of the Characteristics and Duties of Certified Professional Secretaries.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1954. 

 45.  Logan, William.  Criteria for Evaluating a Statewide In-School Distributive Education Program.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Columbus:  Ohio State University, 1952.

 46.  Martin, George.  The Effective of Continuous and Interval Speed-Forcing Methods in Learning to Typewrite.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1954.

 47.  Maxwell, Lyle.  Business Education in the Public Secondary Schools in the State of Michigan.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Boulder:  University of Colorado, 1955.

 48.  Missling, Lorraine.  Prognostic Testing in Shorthand.  Master's Thesis.  Madison:  University of Wisconsin, 1954.

49.  Morgan, Raymond.  The Measure of Stress and Strain of Timed Writings and Production Typing as Reflected in Changes in Pulse Rates.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1954.

 50.  Morrison, Leger.  An Examination of the Psychological Bases for Selected Methods of Teaching Gregg Shorthand.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  Columbia University, 1953.

 51.  National Business Education Association.  National Business Education Quarterly.  Washington:  NBEA.  Volume 26-30.  1956-1957.

 52.  Nelson, John.  A Study of Relationships Between Achievement of Stenographers and Typists on the National Business Entrance Tests and Their Performance in Beginning Positions.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1951. 

53.  Nicks, Earl.  Bookkeeping Activities of Non-Bookkeepers.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1954.

 54.  Palmer, Harold.  Tachistoscopic Training for Beginning Typing Students in a Secondary School.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Corvallis:  Oregon State College, 1954.

 55.  Palmer, Elsie.  Development and Evaluation of Multiple-Channel Dictation Tapes in Beginning Shorthand Classes.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Knoxville:  University of Tennessee, 1963.

 56.  Palmer, Rose.  A Comparison Between two Groups of Shorthand Writers.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York University, 1963.

 57.  Penar, Thaddeus.  The Relationship Between Test Scores on Straight-Copy Typewriting and Test Scores on Selected Typewriting Problems.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1953.

 58.  Polson, James.  Pre-Service Factors Contributing to the Effectiveness of Business Teachers.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Los Angeles:  UCLA, 1961.

 59.  Price, Wilmoth.  The Status of Consumer Education Courses in Colleges and Universities.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Minneapolis:  University of Minnesota, 1953.

 60.  Rahe, Harves.  Review of Research in Typewriting:  A Classification and Summary of Studies Completed Prior to 1949.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1950.

 61.  Russon, Allien.  The Prediction of Scholastic Achievement of Business Education Majors at the College Level.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Los Angeles:  UCLA, 1953.

62.  Silverthorn, James.  The Basic Vocabulary of Written Business Communications.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1955.

 63.  Stather, Donald.  The Application of the Rules of Punctuation in Typical Business Correspondence.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Boston:  Boston University, 1960.

 64.  Stone, Vernon.  Measured Vocational Interests in Relation to Intra-Occupational Proficiency.  Berkeley:  University of California, 1951.

 65.  Stoner, James.  An Analysis of the Accounting Systems and Practices of Small Independent Retail Business.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Pittsburgh:  University of Pittsburgh, 1953.

 66.  Tate, Donald.  An Outline of Topics for a Secretarial Syllabus Developed from Job Analyses.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1952.

 67.  Taylor, Helen.  Development and Evaluation of Programmed Materials in the Presentation of Theory in Beginning Shorthand Classes.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Knoxville:  University of Tennessee, 1963.

 68.  Thompson, Willard.  A Manual of Retail Salesmanship.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1953.

 69.  United Business Education Association, Research Foundation.  Needed Research in Business Education.  Washington:  UBEA, 1955.

 70.  U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education.  Offerings and Enrollments in High School Subjects.  Biennial Survey of Education in the United States:  1948-50.  Washington:  Government Printing Office, 1951.

 71.  U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.  Adjustments to the Introduction of Office Automation.  Bulletin No. 1276.  Washington:  Government Printing Office, May, 1960.

 72.  Van Derveer, Elizabeth.  A Study of Patterns of Performance for the Most Frequent Duties of beginning Clerical Employees.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1950.

 73.  Watson, Jewell.  Buyer Understandings of Life Insurance.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Bloomington:  Indiana University, 1963. 

 74.  West, Leonard.  Practice Sets Toward Speed and Accuracy in a Skill-Building Program in Elementary Typewriting.  Doctoral Dissertation.  New York:  New York University, 1953.

 75.  West, Leonard.  "Some Relationships Between Straight-Copy Typing Skill and Performance on Job-Type Activities."  Delta Pi Epsilon Journal.  3:  17-27; November, 1960. 

 76.  Wilsing, Weston.  An appraisal of Business Education in the Urban and Rural Public High Schools of the State of Washington.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Seattle:  University of Washington, 1959.

 77.  Winger, Fred.  The Determination of the Significance of Tachistoscopic Training in Word Perception as applied to Beginning Typewriting Instruction.  Doctoral Dissertation.  Eugene:  University of Oregon, 1951.